Women Workers in Britain

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Women Workers in Britain A Handbook Leonora Lloyd MATION 2 25p

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Woman Workers in Britain Leonora Lloyd

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Introduction The Women Who Work Where Women Work The Training They Get Part-Time Workers Trade Union Membership Pay, Barnings and Hours Unemployment The Equal Pay Act The Common Market and U.S.A.

Bibliography CONTENTS Exemption Orders; Miscellaneous Information Postscript: Prospects for an Industrial Campaign Appendix 1: Trade Union Membership Appendix 2: Wage Rates in Various Industries 10 13 14 15 22 24 27 30 32 37 42 36

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The Women's Liberation movement in this country is generally considered to have started as a result of an industrial dispute-the Ford sewing-machinists' strike in May/June, 1968. This was not an equal pay strike, but eventually led to equal pay being implemented It was through the organisation that was formed as a result of this dispute-the National Joint Action Campaign Committee for Women's Equal Rights- that many of the women who shortly afterwards started the first women's liberation groups cam together. And it was dissatisfaction with NJACCWER, as much as the example of the American groups, that contributed to the groups taking the form so many of them did: no leaders' or bureaucracy, etc. However, the groups supported the only major action NJACCWER ever organised, the Equal Pay demonstration on May 18th, 1969, which culminated in a meeting in Trafalgar Square, held in the pouring rain, with 1000 supporters Equal Pay Demonstration organised by NJACCWER May Of course, in a predominantly middle-class movement, it was perhaps only natural that many of the women could not see the connec tion with their own problems and those of working-class women. Although coming into the movement had for many of them meant a raising of their political consciousness, this had been a rather selective raising, and the fact that the trade union movement-like the world as distinct, sorted out first. Second, they felt that being middle-class, without any experience of working-class life and conditions of work, they had no credentials for getting involved-they would be aceused of being patronising. Third, they felt that any involvement in any from all over Britain.

HE WANT EQUAL PAY Introduction throughout Fords (in 1971).

EQUA BRUT BHAMS UNITED WOMENS TRAL NOW 18,1969.

EVIL PAY 114 NOW SUAL 1

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industrial campaign raised more question than it answered: such as whether we should encourage women to go out to work in a capitalist system, as this ensured that they were doubly exploited: whether we should enrol women in bureaucratic, male-dominated unions, which could only disillusion them, etc, Fourth, was the purely practical question of how women not involved in industry could get in touch and help women who were.

However, the reluetance to get involved in an industrial campaign did not arise as a result of not understanding the importance of it, or from the belief that the passing of the Equal Pay Act meant that the particular struggle was at an end. Far from it, the women in the movement were all aware that the Act amounted to a betrayal.

In the event, an Industrial Campaign was proposed and accepted by the movement,* although it was the last of the four campaigns to be taken up after the child-care campaign, education and Contraception and Abortion, all of which were adopted at about the same time, three or four months earlier, Ironically, in view of the initial reluctance, it is discussion around the Industrial campaign that most real activity. and education has taken place. One of the most important campaigns has been in connection with the Cleaners' Action Group.

Equal Pay Act Little has been done in direct connection with Equal Pay. The reason for this is clear there has been a definite down-turn in tradeunion and shop-floor activity on this question. It would be difficult enough for militants in industry to artificially stimulate a campaign for equal pay almost impossible for 'outsiders'. But in 1973, the Act requires that 90% of the male rate be reached in those cases affected by the Act. In order to avoid the implementation of the Act, the employers will, over the next two years, be making changes in organisation of working procedures, etc., and in order to be able to fight these, workers must understand the working of the Act and the significance of these avoiding actions.

In a period of increasing unemployment, we must be sensitive to the fears of both male and female workers that moves towards equal pay will increase joblessness. But it is essential that an industrial campaign takes as one of its main tasks, the fighting of unemployment, putting the blame for it squarely where it belongs: not on any group of workers, whether classified by sex or colour, not on wage demands or strikes; but on the capitalist system, that has never been able to provide full employment, which, in fact, depends on the existence of unemployed workers to dampen the militancy of the employed. The presence of a large number of women, potentially available to fill jobs held by men or employed women, has always been a threat to organised labour. It is entirely in the interest of the working-class that more women enter the working-force-so • i.e., by the Women's National Coordinating Committee, set up in April 1970 and voted out in October 1971 by the perticipating groups at the Skegness National Women's Conference. A regional structure has been set up. 2

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long as they do so under entirely equal conditions of pay, opportunity and other conditions; otherwise they will continue to be potential black-legs, sary to recruit women into the unions, to educate them politically, but Women's liberation has a part to play, in this educative process, as in the practical aspects. We must recognise that entering the work-force does three things in particular: it gives the woman some degree of economie independence, it paves the way for her to become part of the labour movement, something that would have been unlikely to have happened if she had stayed within the four walls of her home, and as long as she remains at home, dependent on her husband to provide the necessities of life, the psychological dependence on men which women' sliberation is seeking to attack, will continue and be reinforced. As long as the majority of the working-class depend on wage labour for their existence, as long as capitalism exists, we shall always have to make the choice: to be exploited by the capitalist class (something which the vast majority of men have no choice about) or to be to some extent parasitic, and to a large extent. wholly dependent, on a man. In any case, for a significant number of women, both with and without men to 'support" them, there is no choice The choice before women's liberation is not wholly an either/or one; it is not entirely between campaigning for, say, allowances for stay-at-home mothers or jobs-and-nurseries-for-all. We must campaign for a combination of these-for a real alternative for mothers of young children, in particular.

It would be wrong, in the context of a capitalist society, to say that all women should work, no matter what the circumstances; but it would be equally worong to call for wages for housewives, thus continuing the pre- Above all, we must recognise the situation as it is now, with millions of women going out to work, in unsatisfactory conditions, for unsatisfactory pay; underrepresented and disregarded. It is to these women in the first place that we must tum our attention, Various factors combine to show that, given enough jobs and satisfactory conditions (hours, shopping, child-care, ete) the majority of married women, including mothers, would work. Without discounting campaigns and activities directed towards housewives, those concerning working women raise so many more issues, and are so much more likely to raise the consciousness of the women concerneed, male workers and ourselves, that we must regard the industrial campaign as a priority. In order to put this campaign on a proper footing, we in the movement should arm ourselves with the facts and figures, as well as with the theory. It is to prove this ground work of facts that this they will continue to undercut male labour, etc. the men also need educating on these questions.

Importance of Work about work either: they must work or go without. vailing feminine myths. pamphlet has been compiled.

Note:

DEP - Department of Employment.

NES - New Earnings Survey.

Of course, it is neces Leonora Lloyd 3

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The Women who Out of some 17% million women, some 51% are workers (full and part-time). That is, out of the 234 million workers (in June 1970), nearly 9 million were women-over 37%, Nearly a third of all women workers worked in industry. About 18.5% of all women workers are part-timers (30 hours or under a week) and 62% are married.

TABLE 1. Number of female employees in Great Britain, classified by age group and marital status. (Totals at June 1970) Work Age 15-19 Married Other 20-29 Married Other 30-39 Married Other 40-49 Married Other 50-59 Married Other 60 & over Married Other All ages (15 & over) Married Other 4 * Department of Employment.

Total at June 1970 (in tousands) 70 1,088 1,010 955 1,145 238 1,581 317 1,207 426 377 235 5,388 3,257 Percent of total 0.8 12.6 11.7 11.1 13.2 2.7 18.3 3.7 14.0 4.9 4.4 2.7 62.3 37.7

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Analysis by age, of employees (employed and unemployed) 1966-1970 Great Britain: Percentage in each age group at December 1970.

TABLE 2. 65 and over 60-64 50-59 40-49 Age group 30-39 25-29 21-24 18-20 Under 18 Total 3.1 2.8 2.9 2.8 2.9 2.9 3.1 3.0 3.1 3.1 6.7 6.9 7.7 7.9 8.2 6.5 6.7 6.8 8.0 8.2 19.2 19.2 18.8 18.4 18.7 19.0 18.6 18.4 18.6 19.0 20.8 20.3 21.2 20.0 20.2 20.6 20.8 21.1 21.1 21.6 18.1 17.8 19.4 19.2 19.2 19.0 18.9 17.9 17.9 17.9 8.9 9.2 9.6 9.7 9.7 8.9 8.8 9.9 10.1 10.5 9.3 10.3 10,4 8.6 9.7 9.1 8.8 9.4 9.6 10.0 7.5 6,5 7.8 7.2 6.2 7.5 9.0 7.9 9.3 8.6 4.7 5.0 5.0 4.4 3.9 6.0 5.2 4.1 3.9 5.6 Males and females 1967 1969 1966 1968 1969 1970 1966 1968 1970 1967 Males 2.4 2.5 2.4 2.3 2.3 4.5 4.5 4.6 4.6 4.5 19.0 18.9 19.1 19.0 18.4 21.9 20.9 21.8 22.3 21.2 15.9 15.8 15.6 16.0 15.7 7.2 7.7 8.0 7.4 7.4 9.9 10.3 11.5 11.5 11.1 11.7 10.3 9.7 12.0 11.0 8.4 7.8 7.3 6.9 6.9 1970 1966 1967 1968 1969 Females

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aleemployees married fem- Percent of 66 female emloyees (in thou- Number of 48 sands) Changes in em- 1970& Sept.71 thousands) beployment (in tween June As percent of all employed women 0.8 Women as % occupation of total in TABLE 3- Women's Occupations, June 1970, U,K. DEP Numbers in thousands Occupation 66 65 61 51 243 135 11 - 0.3 - 29.0 - 0.4 - 7.9 - 5.6 - 24.4 2.4 0.2 4.3 1.6 16 0.1 19.3 4.1 41.7 13.6 29.2 12,0 18.3 379.0 8.8 72.7 73.6 141.1 Agriculture, forestry & fishing Chemicals, allied industries Coal, petroleum products Food, drink, tobacco Mining & Quarrying Metal manufacture 63 69 64 68 69 246 0C 135 202 18.5 - 34.8 - 1.1 - 12.6 - 62.1 0.2 1.3 2.5 3.9 4.1 16.9 36.6 6.6 13.1 30.6 42.2 209.1 57.6 13.6 112.1 199.1 345.1 Shipbuilding & marine engin- Mechanical engineering Instrument engineering Other metal goods eering Vehicles Textiles 58 66 65 Do 14 50 37 120 94 206 - 5.0 - 1.8 13.9 - 11.5 - 21 + 18 4.3 0.6 2.8 0.3 0.9 1.6 41.2 75.4 21.7 18.7 33.7 38.4 23.4 337.9 75.7 57.6 223.7 140.5 Leather, leather goods & fur Paper, printing, publishing Other manu. industries Timber, furniture, ete.

Clothing & footwear Bricks, pottery, ete.

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aleemployees female employ married fem- Percent of ees (in Thou- Number of sands) Changes in em- 1970& Sept.71 thousands) beployment (in tween June As percent of all employed women Women as % occupation of total in Number in thousands Occupation 63 60 55 37 - 2.6 + 1.6 1.0 0.7 6.5 15.5 88,9 61.9 Gas, electricity, water Construction 60 58 51 67 64 62 162 902 256 643 1284 284 - 3,2 5.7 17.4 11.7 5.2 0.1 22.1 17.6 55,8 52.0 66.6 54.6 31.9 24.6 284.3 507.7 12.3 1540,5 1951.6 1035.1 463.1 Public administration & defence Professional Scientific services Transport, communication Insurance, banking, etc.

Distributive trades Mise. services Unclassified 62 5388 Women comprised 28.3% of the industrial working force and 43.3% of all service workers. 00.1 37,7 8842.0 Total

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Where Women Work Over half the female working force is employed in semi-skilled and unskilled manual jobs. Semi-skilled is usually defined as needing be tween one and six months training and/or experience. Large numbers of women work in the distributive trades, in the food, drink and tobacco industries and in clothing and footwear and textile industries. But the largest single group of women (see Table 3) are found outside industry, in the group classified as "Professional & Scientific services'. Table 4 TABLE 4. Professional and Scientific Services, June 1970. DEP What this amounts to is that there are a lot of women in teaching and nursing. Thus, women make up only 25% of qualified doctors and 15% of staff in higher education; they are 4% women barristers and 0.06 graduate engineers. However, 90% of nurses are women.

Tables 5 and 6 give breakdowns of manual and non-manual industrial occupations, for three industrial groups: A) Electrical goods; B) Professional Service Accountancy & Services Educational Services Legal Services Medical & Dental Services Religious Organisations 8 gives a breakdown of this large group.

Research & Development Services Other Professional & Scientific Services Total Textiles; C) Timber & Furniture.

Don Valentine: Meccano Triang Number of women (in thousands) 39.0 977.5 71.0 789.0 11.2 19,2 44.7 2,903.4

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TABLE 5. Occupation of Female Employees in Manual Occupations, as % of total in that occupation. (DEP, May 1968).

TABLE 6. Occupations of female employees in non-manual occupations, Occupation Skilled production workers (entry by apprenticeship, etc.) Skilled maintenance workers Production workers (with 6 months training or considerable experience) Production workers (1-6 months do) Foreman & charge-hands Warehouse packers & dispatch Transport drivers Canteen staff Labourers Other employees as % of total in that occupation. (DEP, May 1968).

Occupation Managers, works, supers., dept. managers Scientists & technologists Draughtsmen Other technicians Clerical & Office staff Other admin. tech. & commercial staff Total The geographical breakdown is shown in Table 7.

Electrical goods 2.8 0.9 6.4 11.7 19.0 0.4 84.3 45.9 45.9 Electrical goods 2.6 2.5 2.1 3.9 05.- 17.7 29,4 Textiles 16.8 1.4 14.9 93.3 18.8 9.3 0.9 95.6 46.6 46.6 Textiles 5.4 4.7 4.3 24.4 68.1 29.5 39.5 Timber and furniture 4.2 3.8 42.5 43.7 4.7 16.1 89.0 32.0 32.0 Timber & furniture 3.4 - 1.3 3.2 64.5 9.1 34.4 9

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A certain number of women are classified as "family workers'. In the 1966 partial census, these included: 17% in agriculture, tributive trades and 12%% in catering, hotels, etc. (out of total The Training They Get About 1½ million women and girls are undertaking some sort of further education: they make up just over 50% of those receiving further education, but this is because they outnumber men two to one in evening-classes, which are mainly non-vocational. Other figures The National Youth Employment Council in its report of the work of the Youth Employment Council for the period 1968-1971 notes that "although there were more women in employment in the period under review, the proportion engaged in professional and technical ments, suggests that women have not had their fair share of the ex- *Experiments in some areas to see what obstacles there were to better employment opportunities for girls tended to show that prejudice was strong against giris in the main manufacturing industries, or that employers were only interested in giving engineering oppor classified). are shown in Table 8. 10 operations requiring intensive training had declined. pansion which has taken place in these sectors. tunities to girls if boys were not available. 40% in dis- . "This" , it com-

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14,282 8,646 G.B. 37.7 1.325 834 Scot 38.6 Wales 34.3 635 332 35.9 850 476 N.W. 1,788 1,126 39.5 Hum. & Yorks TABLE 7. Civilian Labour Force, June 1970, by Standard Region. DEP. 1,285 744 36.7 E. Mid. 36.8 898 524 W. Mid. 1.458 842 36.8 S.W. 36.8 847 494 E. Ang. 36.2 235 414 4,775 38.9 3.037 SE.

Percent of Workers females Females Males TABLE 8. Women in Vocational Education Courses. (From ATTI Report on Education Training and Employment of Women & Girls, 1970).

Percent of women Women Men Course 43.6 14.0 3.1 1,086 89,768 81,370 23,707 105,344 550,194 Day-release courses Sandwich courses Full-time courses

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Total Girls 17 Age at entry into employment 16 15 TABLE 9. Analysis by Type of Employment Entered by Age of Entry. DEP 1970.

Total Boys 17 16 15 Class of employment entered 12 7.1 15.8 1.0 2.8 12.1 42.3 104.9 41.0 56.6 Apprenticeship or learnership to skilled occupation 1.8 40.0 4.1 89.5 15.4 1.7 2.2 36,4 37.7- 0.3 1.3 18.0 3.3 19.8 1.6 6.1 1.3 9.5 0.4 4.2 Employment leading to recognised professional qualifications Clerical employment 15.2 35.9 100 34.0 80.4 223.8 2.2 3.5 23.8 5.8 10.9 58,1 26.0 66.0 41.9 34,2 14.2 100 35.2 248.2 85.0 3,2 4.2 22.3 76.9 9.0 16.1 64.7 148.9 23.1 Other employment with planned Other employment training Totals..

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"It was found, too, that girls themselves, and their parents, still showed a marked preference for clerical work and the traditional female oc cupations, and were unwilling to consider the possibilities of engineering. Careers programmes at school were now designed to make girls more aware of work which a few years ago would have been thought unsuitable, and more employers are being encouraged to consider employing girls to do these jobs." (from DEP Gazette, Nov.1971).

TABLE 10. Girls Entering Apprenticeships to Skilled Occupations There was a I4.6% increase (711 to 815) between 1969 and 1970 in In industry, few shop-floor women workers get promotion to foremen, etc. (see Table 5). Chances of promotion above other women are slim enough, over men almost nil. A recent 'Guardian" report (15th Dee.1971) of a training manager's efforts to utilise fully the talents of women secretaries, with a scheme called "Female Career Development', was news precisely because of its uniqueness.

A Financial Times report (18th Dec.1971) shows that those women who "drop out' of the promotional race to have a family accelerate to catch-up with the men when they return to work some years later. Moreover, they also "hold their capacities rather better then male executives. Of course, very few women reach the ranks of the executives, so perhaps they are so exceptional that one should not draw general conclusions from them.

Part Time Workers Employment statistics include part-time workers. Table 11 gives a separate breakdown showing where women part-time workers are found. The idea of professional women working parttime is spreading. Until recently, when many got the sack, due to DEP 1970.

Occupation All manufacturing industries Distributive trades Insurance, banking, finance & business services Professional & Scientific services Mise. services Other industries Total * Included in Misc. services Promotion Prospects (Hairdressing & manicure)* apprenticeships for girls in manufacturing industries.

Number 1,115 908 65 1,128 11,987 11,336 598 15,801 Percent of Total 2.5 17.1 15.0 40.9 43.8 97.7 1.6 13.1 13

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a tightening of educational budgets, there was quite a number of parttime teachers, and many women doctors work part-time, often for the Family Planning Association. With the expansion of the social services it is becoming evident that the expensive training and experience of women in these fields must not be wasted and many authorities are trying to utilise them. However, figures are difficult to obtain.

TABLE 11. Part Time Women Workers: G.B. Mid-March, 1971.

For a discussion of the position of part-time women workers, see There has been a steady growth in trade union membership amongst Manufacturing Industries. DEP Food, drink, tobacco Chemical & allied industries Metal manufacture Mechanical engineering Instrument engineering Electrical engineering Vehicles Other metal goods Textiles Leather, leather goods, fur Clothing & footwear Timber, furniture, etc.

Paper, printing & publishing Other manufacturing industries Total women.

Date Unions with women members (TUC only) Number of women (000's) As % of total members 14 Industry Shipbuilding & marine engineering Bricks, pottery, glass, cement, ete. "Socialist Woman" July-August 1971.

Trade Union Membership TABLE 12. Women in the Trade Unions 1938 76 553 11.8 Est. No. (000's) 107.2 24.5 10.8 29.8 9.3 68.6 2.3 12,9 41.0 48.2 4.0 37.9 9.6 8.2 35.0 32.9 483.0 1946 110 1,215 1,759 16.1 For a full list of unions see appendix 1.

Percent of all women in that industry 31.1 18.2 15.2 15.0 16.6 19.5 18.1 12.1 21.7 16.1 18.0 11.0 13.2 14.7 16.3 24.6 18.5 1970 1965 109 120 1,877 19.8 21.0

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In 1967 about 2 out of 9 working women belonged to trade unions, now the figure is over 1 in 4 (this is for all unions, not just those affillated to the TUC). They now make up about 21% of all TUC member- In 1939, the unions with the largest women's membership were:

USDAW (79,600), Amalgamated Weavers' Association (70,000) and NUTGW (66,800). In 1965, the three equivalent unions were: TGWU (14% ), NUGMW (25%), and USDAW (49%). By 1970 the position was as follows: NUMGW TGWU TGWU(213,524) and NUT (212,208).

For comparison, Table 13 shows women T.U. membership in 1892:

At the end of 1970 the total membership of all unions-including those Pay, Earnings+Hours Table 1b shows average gross weekly and hourly earnings for all industries and services in April, 1971, of workers in NES whose pay was not affected by absence, and increase (monetary and percentage) over April 1970, based on a matched sample, DEP, Nov.1971.

Table 15 shows that percentage increases are very misleading. Thus, in every case, women were better off in percentage terms and worse off in money terms, Across the board increases, say 10% for all grades, obviously benefit those already earning most, which explains why they are popular with craftsmen, who have the most powerful voice in the unions. The employer also welcomes this type of pay award in most cases, because skilled men make up the smaller proportion of the labour force.

TABLE 13 Building & furniture Textile manufacture Printing trades Mise. crafts Total TABLE 14. Thousands.

Members Male Female Total ship, compared to nearly 38% of the labour force.

Trade Union Engineering & metal trades Clothing & leather trades Labourers & transport workers not affiliated to the TUC-was as follows:

Number 8,296 2,704 11,000 Number 2,850 300 80,900 8,650 400 3,450 3,100 99,650 Percent increase since 1969 5.8 9.7 6.7 15

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hourly Percent increase weekly hrly,n.p.

Monetary increase weekly,E earnings Hourly n.p. earnings Weekly Workers TABLE 15. 11.6 13.0 10.3 12.9 6.5 12.0 2.8 4.7 62.2 99.5 29.4 39.1 Full-time men (21 +) Non-manual Manual 12.2 11.6 8.2 3.5 74.1 32.9 Full-time women (18 +) All 14.2 15.5 14.5 14.2 14.6 15.8 5.2 6.3 6.9 2.5 2.1 2.6 38.1 52.9 47.2 19.8 15.3 18.3 • NES - New Earnings Survey.

Non-manual Manual All

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TABLE 16. Hours, Weekly Barnings and Hourly Earnings for Manual Women's hourly earnings as percent of men's were 59.5% in 1969 and 60.1% in 1970. Thus, we see that percent increases are no guide to the improving position or otherwise of women: a larger percent increase mayas it has here result in a smaller monetary increase, leaving the women Workers, March 1971, DEP Workers Average weekly earnings (In E) Oct. 69 Oct. 70 Average hours worked Oct. 69 Oct. 70 Average hourly earnings (In n.p.) Oct. 69 Oct. 70 worse off than before.

TGWU Shop Steward Men over 21 24.83 28.05 46.5 45.7 53.40 61.38 Women over 18 12.11 14.00 38.1 37.9 31.78 36.91 Difference 12.72 14.05 - 8.4 - 7.8 12.62 24.47 17

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TABLE 17, Average Weekly Earnings of Administrative, Technical and Table 18 below shows that 87% of all women manual workers earned below £20 weekly, whilst 87% of all male manual workers earned E20 or more weekly. 61% of all women non-manual workers earned below £20 per week, and 93% of male non-manual workers earned E20 or more per TABLE 18. Percentage with Earnings under Specified Amounts. April 1971. From NES, Nov.1971 (Excluding those whose Pay was Affected Clerical Employees Workers Men Women week by Absence).

Weakly earnings, under (E) Men 5 7 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.4 2.4 4.0 6.2 9.5 12.0 20.8 29.7 39.7 49.5 58.7 77.0 88.2 94.1 97.0 99.1 99.7 99.9 100.0 18 1969 32.07 17.05 Full-time manual workers Women 0.1 0.3 0.8 2.0 4.2 8.4 15.2 23.1 32.9 43.9 54.3 63.1 71.3 77.9 83.2 87.3 92.6 95.4 97.1 98,2 98.9 99.6 99.8 99.9 100.0 100.0 100.0 100,0 100.0 1970 36.12 19.59 Men 28855 co065 59008 51.7 65.3 74.8 81.8 90.0 94.0 96.3 98.2 Increase 4.05 2.54 Full-time non-manual workers Women 88EE3 05000 36.8 43.7 49.8 55.2 61.4 71.2 77.7 83.0 86.8 89.3 94.3 97.2 98.5 99.1 99.7 99.8 99.9 100.0

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Difference Nationalised industries Females trai TABLE 19. Average Weekly Earnings of Admin. Tech. and Clerical Staff in the Public Sector Males National & local government, including teachers & NHS Difference Females Males Date 12.55 13.60 17.38 7.10 18.45 15.26 8.93 13.70 28.95- 35.83 16.03 26.25 13.22 6.39 9.68 11.14 22.78 11.69 17.01 18.51 36.00 18.08 26.69 29.65 1966 1968 1970 1959 Occupations In Manufacturing Industry, May 1968 Showing Females as a percentage of total employed in the occupation (Part-time workers counted as halves). :100.0 all employees Average for Other employees Labourers Canteen staff Road transport drivers Warehouse, packers and despatch workers Foremen and chargehands Other production workem Stilled maintenance workers Stilled production workers Other administrative, technieal and commercial staft Clerical and office staff Otber technielans Draughtsmen Scientists and technologista Managers, superitend tmental managers

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TABLE 20. Earnings and Hours for Railway Workers, Oct. 1970. DEP TABLE 21. Earnings of Manual Workers-London Transport Executive From this, we can see that being in a job nominally entitled to equal pay, gives a women manual worker a good chance of earning aboveaverage earnings (for a woman). However, the industries in which many women work (see Table 4) tend to be low paid for men too and in this connection it is interesting to look at three industries in which many women work (Group I) and three in which few women work (Group II) and compare the rates of pay which men get in these industries.

TABLE 22. Hourly Earnings for Male Workers in Selected Industries.

It is often said that women workers are more expensive to employ, be cause they take more time off, due to illness, ete. The following table gives percentage of workers in the New Earnings Survey loosing pay for a variety of reasons. The worst offenders were full-time manual women workers,, and the reasons can be readily deduced. Part-time women workers need to take less time off for other reasons besides their own illnesses. (The three reasons which account for the full-timers" worse record are: uncertificated illness, voluntary absence, late arrival, early finish).

Workers Male adults Male juniors Female part-time Female full-time Female juniors Workers Road staff Rail Staff Common services All classes (Table 21).

Oct.1970 DEP.

Group I Food, drink & tobacco Textiles Clothing & footwear 20 Numbers 171,529 5,183 823 3,959 63 Number of workers males temales full-time 3,379 26,238 13,805 1,295 1,696 144 41,739 4,818 (For more information ou pay, see appendix 11).

P/hr 59.83 56.58 58.12 Average weekly earnings 29.31 13.03 7.06 17.76 10.44 males part-time 29.24 101 29.86 98 27.58 100 299 29.38 Group I!

Vehicles Coal & petroleum products Paper, printing & publishing Average hours worked 48.3 42.4 25.6 41.6 37.4 Average carnings females part-time Full-time E 25.63 9.70 20.90 7.09 11.93 7.52 23.95 8.12 p/hr 76.49 70.05 74.35

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The manual workers" record-male and female-is worse than the nonmanual workers, because the former are doing duller jobs, which are probably also more unpleasant and less healthy. Women workers often do the dullest jobs of all, the most repetitive, requiring the least training TABLE 24, How Wages are Made Up. Full-time Manual Workers, ete. (See section on training).

Reason Certified sickness Uncertified sickness Voluntary absence Late arrival or carly finish Holidays or other approved absence Started or terminated employment during pay period Interruption of work Industrial dispute, worker directly involved Industrial dispute, worker indirectly involved All reasons Other reasons NES, 1970.

Men Percent of total pay Average payment (E) Women Percent of total pay Average payment (E) TABLE 23. Reasons for Employees Losing Pay Manual females males full-time 4.5 4.2 1.3 3.0 6.2 3.9 7.8 4.2 2.1 1.7 0.7 0.6 0.2 0.1 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.6 1.4 16.4 24.2 Women aged 18 or over - means less than 0.05.

Overtime Basic pay pay 16 66 :19.5 6.8 77 3 11.8 2.0 Percent of employees losing pay for the reasons stated partmales time 1.2 2.2 1.5 0.2 3.9 0.4 2.5 0.2 1.9 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.1 - 0.1 0.1 - 0.1 2.0 2.7 14.0 Shifts Payment by results ete. 4 10 10.7 4.2 1 14 7.1 1.9 Non-manual females Partfull-time time 1.9 1.3 0.5 0.7 1.7 0.8 0.4 0.6 0.7 1.4 0.5 0.5 0.1 - 0,3 1.1 4.7 6.7 Other Com- Bonus mission payments 4 1 - 1.8 2.9 4.7 3 2.3 1.4 1.2 21

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Workers' earnings are not the same thing as pay rates, especially in the case of manual workers. Table 24 shows how earnings are made up in manufacturing industries, and it shows clearly that women's wages depend more on basie pay than do mens', le., women have less chance to make their wages up. Table 25 shows workers receiving payment Civil service, non-industrial grades (industrial grades under negotiation); Law, medicine & accountancy; teaching, journalism, pharmacy, nurs- Entertainment industry (lab. workers, etc.); scientific work generally Female hairdressers in male hairdressing establishments; G.P.O.

Transport (bus conductors); delivery drivers; laundry workers replac Cotton spinners, shoe-repairers; men's bespoke tailoring (Saville Row); Nationalised industries, non-industrial grades (others being nego- Some workers in distributive grades; some industrial workers, e.g.

ExemptionOrders Restrictions on the employment of women and young persons are re- Part VI of the Factories Act, 1961; Employment of Women, Young persons and Children'Act, 1920; Hours of Employment (Conventions) Act, 1936; Mines and Quarries Act 1954; Children and Young Persons Act 1933, amended by the Children and Young Persons Act, 1963; Young Persons (Employment) Acts 1938 and 1964; Shops Free fullboard & lodging Free housing or accomodation, but not board Free full board, but not lodging Other income in kind of estimated value more than E3 per week One or more of these benefits in kind. ing & social services; & draughtsmen; (except cleaners); ing men; tiated); Fords, Act 1950. 22 TABLE 25. Payments in Kind. NES 1970 DEP. males 0.8 1.5 0.2 1.4 3.9 TABLE 26. Main Groups Getting Equal Pay Civil air transport & time clerks; band workers; gulated by the following main provisions:

All employees females 56 0.6 0.3 0.4 0.2 1.5 Full-time manual adults women ten 1.5 0.7 0.4 1.2 0.9 0.2 0.3 0.9 3.0 3.0

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For details of how these acts effect the employment of women workers, see 'A Report: Hours of Employment of Women and Young Persons relating to factory work enables the Secretary of State for Employment to grant, under certain conditions, exemptions to the Act. The Secretary must be satisfied that it is desirable in the public interest to do so - for the purposes of maintaining or increasing the efficiency of industry or • General exemptions are made by regulations and are not limited in duration, but a special exemption order may only be issued for a maximum period of one year. The UK has not ratified the ILO Conventions which prohibit the employment of women and young persons at night because of the policy of allowing such employment in certain TABLE 27. Employment of Women and Young Persons: Special Exemp- The statistics show the number of special orders made, i.e., those that The Survey of Women's Employment, 1968, gave the following reasons for women working (Several women obviously gave more than one The principal drawbacks seen by working women were:

Employed in Factories' transport" circumstances. tion Orders. DEP.

Type of employment permitted by the order Extended hours Double day shifts Long spells Night shifts Part-time work Sat. afternoon work Sunday work Mise.

Total Reasons for Women Working reason) Women, * 18yrs& over 29,015 37,601 8,953 21,471 18,052 6,588 26,589 3,321 151,590 have to be renewed after one year.

Working Reason Financial For company To dispel boredom To give independence ', HMSO (DEP 1969). Exemption from the acts Boys 16-18 1,311 2,841 452 1,526 146 275 1,159 34 8,044 TABLE 28. Reasons for Women 80.8 39.5 28.4 11.5 Girls Total 16-18 2,243 32,569 43,398 2,956 972 10,377 22,997 11 18,209 290 7,153 1,055 28,803 132 3,787 167,203 7,659 23

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Most of the statisties on this matter are not analysed by sex. One of the exceptions is in the case of tenesynovitis (a form of rheumatism, found in a variety of occupations) which was found in the age-groups 25-44 in the ratio of 3 males to 1 female, and in the younger and older age-groups 1:1. Women accounted for 10.8% (32,782) of all reported accidents in 1970, and girls under 18 1.0% (3,059). Women tend to have a smaller percentage of serious accidents, but girls under 18 had nearly 22% severe accidents (including fatalities) which was the highest percentage for this type of accident, greater than for men, boys or Unemployment The problem of unemployment is one which affects all workers and it is difficult to estimate how it will especially affect women. The efforts of unions may mean that the rule of 'married women out first" will apply. On the other hand, employers may seek to retain women rather than men, not just because women get less pay, but because they are traditionally less militant, etc. From Table 30 we see that women and girls suffer from longer periods of unemployment.

TABLE 30. Wholly Unemployed: Great Britain: Duration Analysis women.

Duration in weeks One or less Over 1, up to 2 Up to 2 Over 2, up to 4 Over 4, up to 8 Over 52 Over 8 Total..

Up to 8 - percent 24 TABLE 29. Drawbacks for Women Workers Drawbacks Care of children more difficult Care of house more difficult Care of husband more difficult (causes friction) Interferes with leisure, social life & private life Get irritable, suffer from fatigue, health suffers Industrial Injuries, Illnesses, and Accidents Men 18 yrs and over 47,149 44,426 91.575 63,261 87,443 118,088 399,669 641,948 37.7 Women Boys under 18 18 & over 5,637 12,601 10,935 4,504 25,536 10,141 6,375 14,911 7,776 18,912 368 11,239 15,034 53,076 39,326 110,435 51.9 61.8 % 55.3 42.8 12.8 12.7 7.9 Girls Total under 18 69,323 3,936 3,125 62,990 7.061 132,313 4,100 88,647 4,817 118,948 214 129,909 476,133 8,354 816,041 24,332 65.7 41.7

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TABLE 31. Showing Wholly Unemployed (Exeluding School-Leavers) TABLE 32, Unemployed Register: Entitlement to Benefit,8 Feb.1971.

HT April of year 1968 1969 1970 1971 Oct. 11.1971 * At September 8th, 1971.

Benefit Receiving unemployment benefit only Receiving unemployment benefit & suppl. allowance Receiving supp. al- Jowance only Others registered for work Total....

MOOR REALLY EXISTS Pickets from Brannans" Cleator Moor Strike, 1971.

Actual number (in 000's) men women 468.3 90.0 463.5 78.1 503.1 82.9 613.1 109.6 672.0 128,0 Single* Men women 000°% 000's 255 28 5 80 145 16 10! 13 581 62 - Includes widowed and divorced women.

CLEATOR ALL OUT ACAINST GRANNA:

BLACK LEG As % of total employees mon women 3.1 1.0 0.9 3.1 3.4 0.9 4.2 1.2 1.5 5.0 Married women 000°% 19 1 5 39 Vacancies notified for women,ac tual No. (in 000's) 95.3 102.5 88.7 60.5 58.8* Boys & Total girls 000'% 000's 10 312 90 4 171 7 18 149 39 721 25

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TABLE 33. Labour Turnover, Manufacturing Industries: Four Weeks See also Table 3, giving details of changes in numbers in employment in industrial occupations. For non-industrial occupations, classified figures are unavailable, but it is a characteristic of unemployment that non-industrial occupations are hir rather later, and thus initially, less severely, than industrial jobs. But undoubtedly non-manual workers, at all levels, are being affected by unemployment and there is no reason to suppose that women are less severely hit than men. ended 15th May, 1971.

Turnover Numbers of engagements per 100 employed at beginning of period Numbers of discharges & other losses per 100 employed at beginning of period Male 1.7 2.4 Female 3.3 3.9 Total 2.2 2,8

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The Equal Pay Act What the Act Says The Equal Pay Act, 1970, comes into force on 29th December 1975.

It seeks to eliminate discrimination between men and women (to what extent it is either realistic or capable of achievement we shall be examining) both in regard to pay and terms and conditions of employment, by: *1. establishing the right of the individual woman to equal treatment when she is employed: a) on work of the same or broadly similar nature to that of men; b) in a job which, though different from those of men, has been given an equal value to men's jobs under a job evaluation exercise; and 2. providing for the Industrial Court to remove discrimination in collective agreements, employers' pay structures and statutory wages orders which contain any provisions applying specifically to men only and which have been referred to the Court." (From "A Guide to the Equal Pay Act 1970', DEP).

Women Strikers at the Birmingham Sound Reproducers Factory at East Kilbride just before their pickets clashed with police. 27

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In addition, the Act allows the Secretary of State for Employment to make an order, subject to the approval of Parliament, requiring that women's rates be raised to 90% of men's rates by 31 December, 1973 (in those cases where the Act applies). However, this is a discretionary The Act applies whenever a woman is doing the same or broadly similar work to a man employed in the same or an associated company.

Thus, it would effect all women doing a particular job in any, branch of a company, if a man in only one branch of the company was doing the same job-so long as conditions for men were uniform throughout the company. If negotiations vary from branch to branch for all workers, then the women's work-and pay can only be compared to men in The Act defines what is meant by 'same or broadly similar First, it means work done by both men and women; second, work which has been the subject of a job evaluation and been given an equal rating to men's work; third, where the job evaluation led to different values only because of different weighting or evaluating schemes being used for men and women's work, but which without such differences would have been equally valued: fourth, where the worker or employer has referred the case to an industrial tribunal and the tribunal judges the Act applies: fifth, the Secretary of State for Employment may also refer cases to the tribunal (in both these cases, the reference to a tribunal may be made up to six months after ceasing the particular employment). Back pay may be claimed up to two years (but not before the Act comes into force, ie., not in respect to any earnings before De- The basic test must be that, whatever system of payment is used, it must be capable of paying men and women doing the same work, the In addition, no collective agreements may be made after December 29, 1975, which distinguish between male and female rates of pay. However, where no provision is made for a male rate in a particular category, then a specific female rate may still apply, but it must be no lower than the lowest male rate. The example given in the "Guide' is as follows:

If a collective agreement laid down a skilled male rate of E20.00, an unskilled male rate of E15.00 (but no semi-skilled male rate) and a women's rate (for all elasses of work performed) of $12.00 the Court would amend such an agreement so that, irrespective of sex, skilled work was paid at the rate of E20.00 and unskilled work at the rate of £15.00. In other words, skilled women workers would be entitled to £20,00 and unskilled workers to E15.00.

The original women's rate a rate 'applying specifically to women only'-would continue to be requited for women employed on semiskilled work, because there is no category of semi-skilled men provided for in the agreement. In those circumstances, the Court would amend the women's rate, which had to be retained, from £12.00 to £15.00, namely the lowest rate ip the agreement applisection. the same branch. work' same pay. 28 cember 29, 1970). cable to men.

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In other words, agreements specifying a rate for women lower than the lowest rate for men, are not allowed.

Also, discrimination in terms and conditions is dealt with by the Actcovering such things as holiday entitlement, payment in kind, free meals ete. It does not apply to those cases where women's employment is atfected by other laws, on hours of work, for example. It still allows women to have special terms and conditions in connection with maternity leave, marriage and retirement.

These are the most important provisions of the Act. Incidentally, the Industrial Tribunals and Courts referred to under the Act, have been modified as a result of the Industrial Relations Act, which sets up entirely new machinery.

The Application of the Act Even if the Act made provisions along the demands made by Women's Liberation (i.e., equal pay for work of equal value, with provisions dealing with equal job opportunity, training and promotion) it has certain built-in weaknesses. Thus, there are no penalties for non-observance of the Act. It only applies where agreements are drawn up, so that it will not effect those sectors which most need the provisions, those workers who have no union to negotiate for them. There is nothing to stop an employer having a lowest (non-discriminatory) rate for which no man would work, except a strong union, of course. If there is no union to represent the workers, then the Act's provisions can be called into effect by order of the Industrial Court-so long as some-one draws the Court's attention to the situation- the Employer, the Secretary of State for Employment or the Court itself! Of course, the woman can apply herself-if she knows about how the Act works, and if she has endless selfconfidence and does not mind getting the sack as a militant.

There are three main ways in which wages are arrived at. First, as a result of union negotiation usually, a number of fairly broad categories are used (e.g., skilled, semi-skilled, labourers and women, as applies in engineering). The Act will be fairly easy to apply in this case. Second, also often the result of union negotiating, a whole series of job categories, often with differentials based on strong in-fighting between unions, designedto mystify and divide the workers. Third, wage rates may be arrived at as the result of individual agreements between worker and employer, as happens in many professional and managerial grades. In many small, ununionised firms, a mixture of all three methods is used, designed to create mutual mistrust and boot-lickers. In these latter cases, employers will find the Act extremely easy to circumnavigate.

Thus, we see that in the case of shop-workers, an equal pay agreement coincides with the creation of a whole number, of new grades.

The main ways in which the Act will be avoided, then, are: 1. By separating the jobs done by men and women completely. It is true that if the jobs are evaluated (in the course, perhaps, of a normal job-evaluation exercise prior to pay negotiations) and found to be of 29

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equal value, then the Act applies. But it will be a rare Work Study man who will evaluate any job done only by women to be of the same 2. Making the lowest rate (which applies to the majority of jobs done by women in this case) too low to attract men, without actually des- 3. By not actually describing jobs at all in relation to particular rates of pay. There is nothing to stop employers doing this in the Act!

In addition, we must remember that there is nothing in the Act to compel an employer to take on a woman employee in any particular job, or to give her training, or promotion. In any case, those industries in which most women are found are low-paid industries (for men as well), underor non-unionised, with women kept in 'women's work' (eg., electronics factories may employ women only on the bench, with only male foremen). So the Act does not apply to them in any case. Then, the ways in which women are paid (payment by results, ete.) keep women's pay low and this will not be affected by the Act. Until the Act is applied by the Court, we do not know just how it will be effected in practice by those laws affecting women's employment, in regard to night-work, Does the Act have any good points at all? Where unions exist to fight for it (which will only happen under pressure from the membership) then if the provisions of the Act are put into effect without points 1-3 above allowed to be put into effect, the Act will substantially improve the pay of anything up to three million women. The most important provision is that stipulating that no grade applying only to women may be lower than the lowest male grade at the moment most agreements result in the top women's grade being lower than the bottom male grade. If this happens, then it may result in a general rise in women's pay, but not if the present trend of unemployment Common Market -USA Table 34. The Common Market: Increases in Average Hourly Rate overtime, etc. continues.

Country Belgium W. Germany France Haly Luxenbourg Netherlands 30 value as 'a job done only by men". ignating the job as for women only. men 18.4 18.0 11.0 15.9 10.1 19.1 April 1964 to April 1966 women 23.0 19.8 10.4 20.7 32.4 21.9 April 1965 to Aprl. 1966 women men 10.5 7.8 7.8 10.2 5.2 6.6 5.1 6.2 6.9 19.7 9.4 8.D

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The U.S.A. passed an Equal Pay Act in 1963 which covers all workers employed in interstate commerce or the production of goods for interstate commerce. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 makes it unlawful for an employer of more than 25 employees to discriminate on the basis of race, colour, rellgion, sex or national origin in: hiring or firing; wages, terms, conditions or privileges of employment; classifying, assigning or promoting employees, or extending or assigning use of facilities; training, re-training or apprenticeships; receiving applications or classifying or referring for em- In addition 36 states have their own equal pay legislation. However, the differential has been widening. The median earnings of women in full-time, all-the-year-round employment was 65% of the men's median in 1955. By 1968 it was 58%. Women made up 45% of workers in professional and technical work in 1960 and 38% in So, legislation is not the answer. Only through militant united action The U.S.A. ployment. 1968. 100% 50% GERMANY will women achieve real and not illusionary progress.

Industries. (Source: TUC).

FRANCE ITALY Women's Hourly Earnings as proportion of Men's Hourly Earnings, April 1969; Average for all Manufacturing NETHERLANDS BELGIUM LUXEMBOURG U. K.

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Prospects Background to an Industrial Campaign The Main Characteristics of Women in Employment 1. To summarise the information in the statistical section: over half of all women are in employment ; 62% of them are married and 18.5% work part-time. They are to be found overwhelmingly in the lowerpaid, less skilled jobs?: A minority are in unions, but a rapidly increas ing minority. 2. Women are playing an increasingly important role in the labour force. They cannot in any sense be called "peripheral": they are found predominantly in the expanding areas of the economy-service and consumer industries (one exception is textiles, which is rapidly contracting) rather than in the heavy, contracting industries. 3. Those factors which inhibit workers in general from playing a full part in the labour movement,3 thus causing it to be controlled by a bureaucracy, apply in special force to women. In addition, where the possibility exists for activity, this may be thwarted by prejudice, from both men and other women. However, this comparative exclusion from T.U. activity has a positive side to it, as will be discussed below. 4. Women workers on the whole remain home-centred and are prepared to accept poor conditions in return for certain "privileges" which allow them to fulfill their home "duties". This means that they have a different attitude to work, which again can have positive aspects. 5. Unemployment among women is greatly under-estimated in official statistics. The position of women as a pool of either unemployed or under-paid workers leads to an anomaly: the organised, male orientated T.U. movement pulls in the direction of women being thrown out of their jobs first in the event of rising unemployment, whilst the employers may prefer to keep on lower-paid workers if possible.

Some Aspects of Women's Unemployment The main debate in the women's movement centre around what campaign will move the most women into activity and increase their "consciousness" 4 The answer depends on two things. 1) An analysis of women's oppression-at what point is it deepest, at what point does an attack create the greatest results? 2) The purpose for which "consciousness" should be raised, ie., whether we have a feminist or socialist (specifically Marxist) analysis of women's oppression.5 Do you believe that women are oppressed because they are women, mainly (even 32

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only) by men? Or are women also an especially exploited section of the working-class (not withstanding that all women are oppressed as women, not all are exploited, certainly not equally), their extra oppression being a product of class society? If the former, then we are faced with the utopian task of eradicating, all differences between the sexes 6 The second proposition accepts that women's "biological des. tiny" historically made her oppression and exploitation possible, but that conditions are now over-ripe, not only for the over throw of capitalism, but for an ending of women's oppression, her double exploitation. Women need no longer be slaves to their biology and society can now affort to accept (though it will only pay lip-service to this idea under capitalism) that women's role as child-bearers is a social role, and not the only role for women to play, and that the raising of children is also a social role, the responsibility of men and women alike.

The Marxist viewpoint is that women cannot be rid of oppression, cannot obtain social, sexual, political, legal, educational and economic equality (in more than name) in a capitalist society. They are not guaranteed equality in a capitalist society, of course,? But the establishment of socialism is a pre-condition; true socialism, i.e., communism includes, of course, all the demands of women's liberation and a lot more besides. A socialist society can only be achieved by a working class in revolutionary struggle, led by advance workers imbued with a revolutionary socialist consciousness and a revolutionary party. 8 Women make up half the working-class, including nearly 40% of workers, and not only would their exclusion from struggle represent an enormous loss of militancy and ability, but they would be in a position to act as scabs. Indeed, wrong policies followed in the past and now have put women in the position where they have very little choice but to scab, and no incentive to do otherwise. Housewives in particular are the subject of propaganda against strikers all part of the same attempt to create divisions in the working-class. Only in a very few cases (Fords is one example) is any conscious attempt made to organise wives of strikers in support of the strike. Such attempts provoke the most bitter attacks on the strikers and their wives by the press, who always manage to find some heroie little woman pitting her meagre strength against the mighty union.

The most negative aspect of women workers is that so many of them are home-centred (including many unmarried women). This means that their working conditions, including pay, come second. The majority of married women accept that their's is a secondary wage (in terms of the family's economy) and that they can continue to work only as long as economic pressures are greater than domestic ones. Because they are home-centred, they are less trade-union minded: they feel the need to improve conditions less and they have less time and energy to devote to union matters. Nevertheless, the fact that they are part of the working force opens the way for them to become organised and to gain a realisation of their unity with the interests of the working-class. 33

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So we do not write women off simply because they are home-centred, a fact which arises out of, and emphasises their double oppression. They need not feel this double oppression, but once they do feel it, militancy grows quickly and-if reinforced by propaganda and agitation can result in an equally quick growth of consciousness. Women, like other especially oppressed groups, once they begin to understand their oppression, are in a position to see the nature of capitalist society more clearly than the less oppressed. Then again, capitalism does not strike at one point only and women feel the effects of attacks on social services and price rises more immediately, more directly, than men, precisely because they are home-centred. The concentration of male militants on union issues leads to a one-sidedness to their development.

Women's lack of participation in union affairs, whether the result of lack of interest, lack of time or male prejudice, leads to a lack of involvement in the bureaucracy, which means that when women do move into action, they are less easily dominated by the trade-union officials, more maily ever eton one impatient of the dictates of a patronising male official whom they normally never see from one year's end to the next. As with other groups not integrated into the union structure (black workers, newly organised groups, ete.) women's struggles quickly escalate and rapidly become militant. And perhaps their very economic dependence on man (which still exists for most working wives) enables them to take up a fearless attitude: one of the more important functions of the family is to restrict men's militancy because of the family's economic demands.

The Present Situation Two factors above all others are apparent in the present situation: rising unemployment (and, especially for women, hard-core unemployment, see Table 30) and the coming into operation of the EPA, which is being fought all along the way by employers and the majority of male workers (and not being helped much by most women!) The two interact with each other. In the past, when there have been periods of serious unemployment, employers have often taken advantage of women's lower rates of pay to keep them on at the expense of men. Many women are afraid that, given equal pay, they will no longer be such an attractive proposition to employers, and this is a correct analysis, because given the extra 'social" cost of employing women resulting from their greater responsibility for the children employers will employ men if possible.?

That is why the campaign for equal pay must involve many other aspects as will-child-care facilities, ete.— which will enable women to take a full part in the working force. (We must not say, compete on equal terms, as is often said by bourgois economists, who encourage competition between workers).

The position of women underpins capitalist society and to improve that position we must utilize every possible means, but the most effective will be those attacking capitalist society where it hurts at the point of production. Women militants and women revolutionaries must expose

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the true state of affairs constantly and present a programme of demands to the working-class movement. These demands must include:

All jobs to be open to women-an ending of women's work.

A reduction of working hours for all; minimum shift-work, etc. (ie., where women have better conditions, these should be Matermity leave on full pay, with a guaranteed return to work.

Union meetings in working hours, when women can attend.

Housewives to be allowed to retain union membership.

Work-sharing, shorter working week, with no loss of pay, when A minimum wage, tied to the cost of living, to be paid also to "Family leave' available to both parents, with pay, for children s Enough nurseries, creches and after-school facilities for all The over-riding importance of the industrial campaign does not blind us to a recognition of the other important issues in women's liberation, such as the right to free contraception and abortion on demand, but in our opinion, they do not have the potential to mobilise women (we should not forget that the greatest number of organised women are those found in the unions) or to challenge capitalism to the same extent.

The question of working with women is not merely an academic one.

As the crisis of capitalism deepens, women will be drawn into the struggle. Inthe past, women'smilitaney has been rewardedtoo often withthe crumbs left over after the craft workers have taken their share. If this situation continues, bitterness will ensue, which can only result in a continuation of divisions within the working-class, just at a time when the maximum unity in action is required. The question is one of urgent necessity, the struggle one that will test the revolutionary resolve and Those not in employment includes those still in full-time education, retired workers, self-employed, home-workers (i.e., out-workers) and mothers of young children. So given the present situation (few nurseries, high unemployment, etc.) the 'economic activity" of women is higher than it seems.

It is difficult to say just how many women are in skilled or semi-skilled jobs, *Bureaucracy in workers" organisation is a product of the social division of labour, ie., of the inability of the working masses, who are largely excluded from the cultural and theoretical processiof production under capitalism, to Equal pay for work of equal value.

The right to work for all, men and women.

Full equality in training and promotion. extended to men too). unemployed workers. illness, etc. children. sincerity of many a male militant.

Notes 2. 3. threatened by unemployment. No productivity deals. because most women's jobs are defined as unskilled.

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themselves regularly take care of all the tasks which must be dealt with within the framework of their organisation." "The Leninist Theory of Organisa- There are, of course, elements within the women's movement who are not interested in activity of any sort, outside of raising their own conscious See Margeret Coulson's article in International", Vol. 1, No. 4:"Women's See Shulamith Firestone's "Dialetic of Sex " for an exposition of the ulti- *... the oppression of women is intrinsic to the capitalist system — as it is "The revolution is impossible without women's liberation: women's liberation is impossible without the revolution"-Italian Socialist Women's 9. This is assuming that other things are equal too, le., that the women are well organised, because naturally the employers prefer unorganised wor- Gilman, G. P., Women & Economics, Harper & Row (1971).

Keivan, P., How Working Mothers Manage, Clifton Books (1970).

Myrdal & Klein, Women's Two Poles, Routledge (1968).

P.E.P., Women in Top Jobs, Sex, Career & Family, Allen & Unwin Yudkin & Holme, Working Mothers & Their Children, Michael Joseph TUC, Women Workers, Annual Report to TU Women's Conference.

For a fuller list see "Booklist for Women's Liberation" available 13p 4. ness. 5. 6. 7. not to the socialist" slogan. 8. See Mandel, Ibid. kers of either sex. (1971). (1969). 36 tion', "E. Mandel, IMG Publications.

Liberation: Context & Potentialities". mate feminist position. 'Women's Estate".

Kelsall, Women & Teaching, HMSO.

Purder, P., Women at Work, PEP (1969).

Toynbee, P., A Working Life, Hodder & S. (1971). (including PEP) from S. W. Publications. ; Juliet Mitchell, Penguin Books BIBLIOGRAPHY

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A complete list of TUC unions with female membership. Summary: there are a total of 142 unions affiliated to the TUC, of which 37 have no women in membership. The unions pay affiliation fees and get representation on the basis of their reported membership, and some unions have the tradition of rounding off their membership; some have no real record of membership by sex, so presumably the reported membership is something of a guess. The reported membership of the TUC, including unions without any women, is 10,002,204; of which 2,394,915 are women — 21%.

Union GMWU TGWU NUPE USDAW NALGO AUEW CPSA NUTGW CAWU UPW APPENDIX 1: TRADE UNION MEMBERSHIP Total Membership 853,353 1,638,686 372,709 329,890 439,887 1,294,944 184,935 117,573 125,541 209.479 Unions with the largest female membership % Women 28.8 13.6 59.4 51.8 38.3 11.1 66.0 85.5 53.2 25.0 Full-time officials Total Women 4 162 600 90 150 80 200 17 9 48 44 2 12 37

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Deleguates to 1971 Total Women T.U.C. women in T.U.C. tercentage of women As percentage of in the Union Number of female members Name of Union 56 - 11-1 0.02 0.03 0.01 0.04 89 1.98 4.00 2.44 0.02 1.62 23.45 0.01 16.3 14 136 978 5,526 7,933 17,636 500 50 700 222,866 350 National Union of Domestic Appliance & General Metal Merchant Navy & Air Line Officers' Association Scottish Commercial Motormen's Union Transport Salaried Staff's' Association Transport & General Workers" Union Radio & Electronic Officers' Union The United Road Transport Union British Airline Pilots Association National Union of Mineworkers National Union of Railwaymen National Union of Seamen Workers 56 1.52 11.62 4.72 14.56 6.15 140.860 3,070 6,684 80 Military & Orchestral Musical Instrument Makers' Trade Sty.

Amalgamated Union of Engineering Workers:

Ass. of Patternmakers & Allied Craftsmen National Society of Metal Mechanics Associated Society of Metalworkers Foundry Section Eng. Section 0.05 0.2 0.2 16 1.9 4.0 6.34 43,58 48.63 73.38 5.71 66.66 85.16 1,100 47,262 149 4.768 3.894 100,123 38,241 National Union of Footwear, Leather & Allied Trades Rosendale Union of Boot Shoe & Stipper Operatives National Union of Hosiery & Knitwear Workers National Union of Tailors & Garment Workers Screw, Nut, Bolt & Rivet Trade Sty.

National Union of Vehicle Builders National Union of Scalemakers

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1 0.01 0.04 0.05 0.7 0.2 0.7 0.2 66.67 35.62 32.03 24.71 $3.91 $4.44 40.60 476 17,375 3,752 1,050 1,345 18,556 6,131 National League of the Blind & Disabled Scottish Union of Bakers & Allied W.

Waterproof Garment Workers T.U.

National Society of Brushmakers Chemical Workers Union Ceramic & Allied T.U.

The Bakers Union 0.5 0.2 0.1 57.78 66.63 5.20 1.00 33.33 51.76 2.3 155 170,742 12.527 5,200 300 4,699 2,071 Retail Book, Stationary & Allied Trades Employees Ass.

Union of Shop, Distributive & Allied W.

National Union of Agricultural Workers National Ass. of Co-operative Official Greater London Council Staff Ass.

Tobacco Workers' Union Fire Brigades Union 8.8 0.2 61.95 6.05 10.98 73.70 99.91 38.15 59.23 55.475 5.427 333 167,797 220,768 6,245 228.855 National & Local Government Officers" Ass, National Association of Schoolmasters.

Confederation of Health Service Emp.

National Union of Public Employees Medical Practicioners* Union National Union of Teachers Health visitors' Association 0.07 0.2 4.8 0.3 6.1 12.87 1.23 65.77 27.15 1.59 56.30 0.01 1,858 28.003 3,829 50 121,629 9,568 10 Ask of Government Supervisors & Radio Officers National Union of Water Works Employees Ass of Teachers in Technical Institutions County Court Officers' Association Civil & Public Services Association Inland Revenue Staff Association Civil Service Union

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total Delegates tp 1971 women T.U.C.

As percemtage of women in T.U.C. 0.03 0.17 0.03 0.07 Percentage of women in the union 5.45 25.36 $4.44 1.59 Number of female 8,656 1,858 733 4,339 members Ministry of Labour Staff Federation Name of Union Post Office Engineering Union Ass of Post Office Executives 0.02 0.09 0.09 1.7 0.3 2.1 47.98 25.00 4.98 21.67 47.10 21.67 680 8,470 42,772 2,435 52,369 2,352 (inci. Variety Artist's Federation) Post Office Managements Staffs Ass.

National Union of Bank Employees Society of Technical Civil Servants British Actors Equity Association Union of Post Office Workers Prison Officers Association Ass. of Broadeasting Staff 11-+1 0.03 0.02 0.2 0.09 0.01 2.7 13.35 53.24 44.14 7.54 40.51 33.27 28,79 10.11 6,338 551 245,685 2,209 66,834 2,480 960 3.541 Ass. of Cinematograph, Television & Allied Technicians Nat. Ass, of Theatrical, Television & Kine Employees Clerical and Administrative Workers' Union National Union of Insurance Workers Writers Guild of Great Britain Film Artistes Ass.

Musicians Union 0.06 0.3 0.1 22.22 6.63 14.92 12.97 46.42 10.53 9.8 547 2.416 20 1,125 N 68 9.067 Amalgamated Society of Wire Drawers & Kindred W.

National Union of Funeral Service Operatives Nut. Union of Gencral & Municipal Workers National Union of Furniture T. Operatives National Union of Lock & Metal Workers United Rubber Workers of Gt. Britain Sheffield Wool, Shear Workers* T.U.

Spring Trapmakers* Sty.

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0.03 16.53 4.03 1.18 2.58 0.18 5.08 648 125 25 2,715 52 11,200 Amalgamated Socity of Wood-cutting Machinists Draughtsmen's & Allied Technicians Association Ass of Scientific, Technical & Managerial Staffs Electrical power Engineers' Association Association of Building Technicians Sign & Display T.U. 0.03 0.03 0.3 2.9 0.5 0.1 12.94 0.19 0.46 18.69 5.86 37.22 23.36 15.15 54,438 36 717 6,835 12,163 3,712 71,799 Society of Lithographic Artists, Designers Engravers & Electrical Electronic Telecommunication U./Plumbing National Union of Blastfurnacemen, Ore Miners, Coke National Society of Operative Printers & Assistants National Union of Gold, Silver & Allied Trades Chain makers & Strikers" Association Society of Graphical & Allied Trades Iron & Steel Trades Confederation Workers & Kindred Trades National Union of Journalists Trades Union 1.65 24.94 13.71 272 947 1,000 Scottish Typographical Association Wall paper Workers" Union Process Workers N10- 0.02 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.03 0.9 0.1 0.6 11.40 27.01 41.44 3.96 59.17 38.62 17.62 55.00 44.42 52.43 $1.78 5.71 56.01 187 515 23,614 18 2,000 1,900 240 13,322 2.000 61 3,820 15,438 755 Weavers & Woollen Text. Workers* Ass. Saddleworth & District Amalgamated Ass, of Operative Cotton Spinners& Twiners Amalgamated Sty, of Textile Workers & Kindred Trades:

National Union of Dyers, Bleachers & Textile Workers Power Loom Carpet Weavers & Textile Workers' Ass.

Amalgamated Ass. of Beamers, Twisters & Drawers Union of Jute, Flax & Kindred Textile Operatives National Union of Textile & Allied Workers Yorkshire Society of Textile Craftsmen Amalgamated Textile Warchouseman United Society of Engravers Amalgamated Weavers Ass.

Northern Carpet Trade U. (Hand and Machine)

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MONETARY DIFFERENTIAL 1971 1961 1971 % DIFFERENTIAL 1969 MIN.FEM.

FEB. 1971 RATES APPENDIX 2: WAGE RATES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES & % NO. OF WOMEN OF INDUSTRY INDUSTRY 42 Equal pay 15.41% 14.80 13.75 17.00 16.25 21.15 4% 17% 28%6 58% 13% 85% 4,000 17,000 450,000 13,000 7,000 45,000 L INDUSTRIES GIVING BQUAL PAY Local Authority, manual (E.& W.) Municipal Bus Conductors Company Bus-conductors B,R. Conciliation Staff F.P.O. Telephonists L.T.E. conductors 2.424 2.77% 2.50 2,50 2.85 3.40 1.00 1.00 2.58 3.00 3.15 3.2% 2,80 3.00 3.05 3.05 3.14 3.30 3.30 3.30 3.20 2.67 1.00 3.0 78 77 79 83 82 82 74 100 100 92 92 81 79 72 74 72 76 75 75 75 73 73 92 72 73 74 11.82% 9.874 11.75 11.85 11.50 11.50 9.90 9.90 12.55 12.00 12.00 10.25 16.50 82% 8% 70% 68% 10% 55% 50% 35% 53% 47% 55% 11. INDUSTRIES MAKING MOVES TOWARDS EQUAL PAY Last increase smaller than men's 47,000 6,000 135,000 9,800 5,000 32,000 1,000 20,000 70,000 8,000 30,000 • Last increase was greater than men's.

Retail multiple grocery (E. & W.)* Retail Pharmacy (dispensing)"

Retail be-spoke tailoring*+ Tobacco manufacture** Soap, candle, edible fats Retail meat (E. & W.)"

Biscuit manufacture* Retail co-operatives• Cocoa & chocolate* Seed crushing, etc.* Food manufacture* ditto (Scot.)* + Wages council, Heavy chemicals

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1.83 3.50 2.65 3.48 2.05% 3.50 3.00 89. 79 83 79 III. OTHER INDUSTRIES GIVING LARGER OR THE SAME INCREASES (LAST TIME) TO WOMEN 80 75 76 77 14.92 13.50 13.15 12.57 23% 13% 25% 7,000 15,000 28,000 Government industrial workers* NHS ancillary workers** Electrical cable making Rubber manufacture 2.47% 2.57% 2.50 3.00 3.10 2.12 3.00 2,57% 2.67% 2.55 2.75 3.05 2.70 2.55 3.40 80 78 76 79 79 78 77 73 74 78 76 73 76 77 9.47% 12.55 12.00 11.90 11.20 10.25 9.52 9.35 10% 78% 5%6 10% 76% 78% 87% 55% 266,000 110,000 9,000 26,000 58,000 20,000 1,400 312,000 Milk distribution (E.& W.)t Retail multiple footwear* Wholesale grocery (Scot.) Milk distribution (Scot.) Retail food (E, & W.)*+ Retail bread (E.& W.)*4 Retail furnishingt Retail drapery *+ 2.224 2.624 3.10 2.55 6.15 2.65 2.25 3.30 5.92% 2.474 2.65 2.55 2,35 2.60 3.30 79 65 78 80 76 80 79 76 62 76 75 73 77 74 9.324 9.42% 8.87% 11.25 8.95 8.75 12.20 20% 84% 29% 77% 79% 77% 84% 750 20,000 12,000 27,000 10,000 69,000 11,000 Wholesale newspaper dist. (prov.) Retail newsagencies (E.& W.) Paint, Varnish & lacquer Retail bread (Scot.)*+ Retail food (Scot.)*+ Retail bookselling*+ ditto (Scotit* 3.42% 3,70% 1.50 3.00 3.94 3.25 2.75 2.00 3.32% 1.22 3.35 4.00 3.25 2,75 3.63 2.42 76 90 81 75 77 76 88 79 73 90 73 67 78 78 73 74 10.574 13.79% 14.85 12.75 11.25 8.75 14.50 11.81 20% 125 15% 8% 10% 35% 31% 14% 30,000 5,000 600 800 1,000 3,500 7,000 2,800 General printing (E.& W.) Aerated waters (E.& WIF Best sugar manufacture Drugs & fine chemicals Glass containers Flour milling* Bacon curing Corn trade*

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MONETARY DIFFERENTIAL 2.79 2.00 3.67 2.33 1971 1969 2.79 2.00 3.25 2.50 83 87 78 84 % DIFFERENTIAL 1971 78 78 84 75 1969 12.97% MIN, FEM. 12.00 13.20 12.83 FEB. 1971 RATES 16% 60% 5% 10% NO. OF WOMEN & % OF INDUSTRY 800 45,000 1,000 1,000 INDUSTRY Sawmilling (E.& WO Refractory goods* Veneer producing Foot wear 3.00 3.04 2.58 2.67 1.19 3.00 2.56 2.75 2.56 3.00 2.75 1.19 2.95 2.50 78 78 81 80 90 80 77 71 74 74 89 73 75 75 10.83 10.50 10.25 10.96 10.83 10.51 10.75 54% 49% 91% 85% 33% 71% 60% 4,900 31,000 14,000 7,600 8,500 12,500 4,700 Fibreboard packing case Corset manufacture *+ Stamped metalwarest Rope,twine & net*+ Surgical dressings Narrow fabrics Shirt making* 3.124 3.17 2.85 3.17 2.62 2.58 3.00 3.05 3.184 2.62% 2.75 2.17 2.92 2.85 2.57 3.00 77 78 75 79 75 75 76 75 72 74 75 73 75 71 10.17% 9.624 10.33 10.00 9.95 9.50 9.77 9.10 72% 20% 24% 87% 37% 8% 11,000 63,000 8,400 200 150 13.00 Match manufacturing Wholesale mantle*+ Timber containers Textile Bleaching Gelatine & glue Shoe repairingt Silk spinning Paper box 1.62% 2.08 2.33 3.05 2.00 3.00 1.90 3.124 1.62% 2.33 2.00 3.14 2.22 2.30 76 80 82 74 86 R1 68 85 77 74 71 81 74 10.17% 9.08 9.83 9.67 8.92 8.92 9.21 48% 93% 61% 92% 73% 94% 6,900 134,000 20,000 82,000 145,000 8,000 Industrial & Staff canteens*+ Dressmaking (E.& W.)*+ Hat, cap, & millinery+ Toy manufacturet Handkerchiefs+» Laundering*+ Haidressingt

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1.57% 2.06 166 1.62% 2.15% £125 83 78 92 77 75 83 £801 p.a. 7.24 IV. INDUSTRIES GIVING SMALLER INCREASES (LAST TIME) TO WOMEN 7,75 60% 85% 180,000 155,000 Licensed residential establishments*+ Unlicensed places of refreshment*+ Fire service 4.79% 2.83% 4.17 1.60 4.50 2.50 2.35 3.89 1.25 3.50 2.42 2.46 75 83 75 73 75 75 81 90 79 12.37% 12.25 11.67 12.75 13.50 12.50 5% 2% 33% 66% 22% 12% 11,000 1,000 23,000 5,500 1,000 Multiple baking (E.& W.) Furniture manufucture Engineering (manual) Motor retail & repair Wire & wire rope Building brick Fletton brick 1.80 4.33 4.00 2.83 3.58 5.01 5.21 3.55% 3.164 2.94 4.19 4.38 4.04 2.50 72 78 72 67 74 75 68 78 66 67 66 76 10.76 10.25 12.20 11.03 10.67 10.33 10.00 66% 56% 11% 60% 80% 17% 2,100 8.000 25,000 8,000 3,000 72,000 1,000 Wool textiles (West of Eng.) Wallpaper manufacture Ready-made tailoringt Hosiery finishing Paper making Pottery E102 p.a. 3.75 2.42 4.00 3.20 2.71 2.584 2.47% 2.92% 3.46 3.67 E80 78 90 71 79 69 78 62 90 66 76 71 9.08% 9.37% £921 p.a 9.25 7.70 8.92 62% 28% 91% 93% 46% 70,000 4,500 6,700 14,000 3,500 Hosiery manufacture (Scot) Wool textiles (York) Leather producing Made-up textilest Fur trade Police

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The paper Socinlist Woman was established in early 1969 in Nottingham on the initiative of the IMG (International Marxist Group) with the aim of establishing Socialist Women Groups around it. Women members and sympathisers in Nottingham and other parts of the country distributed, wrote for, and supported the paper, and have taken the initiative in setting up Socialist Women The Editorial Board is now composed of members from several Socialist The IMG sees the struggle for women's liberation as an integral part of its work in helping to build the revolutionary left in Britain, and expresses its politics in relation to Women's liberation through the activity of its members in Socialist Women Groups. It recognises that the non-IMG women comrades working in Socialist Women Groups may not wish to commit themselves to all aspects of the IMG's programme and activities, and welcomes into the Socialist Women Groups those socialist women who wish to work with the IMG comrades on this aspect of their politics as expressed in the paper Socialist Women.

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